Motivation is very influential in establishing behaviour and building sound relationships between managers and employees in the workplace. Knowing what motivates people to behave or perform work tasks is a key concern. Motivation is also key in adult education. Adult education is central to social development; change, community and international relations, hence understanding of motivational issues is critical for adult learning because adults are the prime movers of social change. This piece of text defines motivation and highlights the types of motivation. Please, follow the links at the end of this article to find out more about motivation theories, which help to conceptualise the subject of motivation. as a leader, educationist or manager, you must know what motivates you and those around you.
Defining motivation
Motivation can be defined by different viewpoints. According to the Chartered Management Institute in Mullins & Christy (2013:246), “Motivation is the creation of stimuli, incentives and working environment that enable people to perform to the best of their ability”. Another given definition indicates “…motivation is some driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal to fulfil some need or expectation.” According to Robbins & Judge (2015:216), motivation is “The process that accounts for an individuals’ direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.” These definitions summarise the viewpoints from which motivation is understood as is discussed in the text.
Motivation, with other variables such as skill and ability, contributes to job performance; hence, managers have an interest in motivation to understand how to achieve the best through the help of others. The major management concern is increasing job performance. Educational managers have a dual task to motivating staff who work under them as well as the learners. Maximum cooperation of learners with facilitators and other members of staff increase efficiencies in the administration and learning processes.
Types of motivation
Extrinsic Motivation explains the outward effort made by managers to elicit the cooperation of the employees. This effort can be in the form of stimuli, rewards or incentives. It “…is related to tangible ‘rewards’ such as salary, and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, work environment and conditions of work, which are determined at an organisational level.” (Mullins & Christy, 2013:247).
Intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from within in terms of personal goals, aspirations and desires; problem/ goal orientation to work performance/ learning. “Intrinsic motivation is related to ‘psychological’ rewards such as the ability, a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.” These can be determined by the actions and behaviour of individual managers in the workplace. Intrinsic orientation also deals with an individual own perception about work and personal orientation to work Mullins & Christy, 2013).
Need for motivation theoriesTheories help to understand the underlying principles or concepts of phenomena. they reflect various notions, ideas, arguments and conclusions reached after careful studies on a subject. Motivation theories help to understand what motivates people and how motivation can be applied in the workplace or in adult education. 
The motivation for learning can be analysed in the area of needs. The needs are either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation relates to tangible rewards whilst intrinsic motivation relates to the psychological rewards, for example, job satisfaction and improved self-concept. However, the two are not mutually exclusive. The psychological needs may be linked to some ulterior motive or tangible reward. The value placed on the exterior rewards also is subjective and depends on people's perception and an expectation of satisfaction to be derived from the reward.
People are motivated by different things and motivation studies provide several theories by which motivation and its contribution to organisational success are to be understood. There are various ‘competing’ theories of motivation, but their frame of reference is linked to management schools of thought for logic. The classic, human relations, systems, and contingency approaches all view management from different viewpoints and thus influence the thinking behind motivation in the workplace. There are other schools of thought, who view management purely as a direct relationship with production and others, who view motivation in terms of the aspect of social relations. These underlying perceptions influence how managers motivate their subordinates for improved job performance.
Those managers who look at motivation as a technical aspect to increase production care less about the social relations or psychological effects of the work environment, job structure or work organisation, but they focus on objective approaches to influencing people to work. Rules, structured work procedures, and external rewards leave little room for passionate attachments between managers and subordinates. Employees are motivated by external rewards, incentives or punishments to reinforce or encourage action.
Managers who focus on the aspect of the social relations at work realise the influence of the humane element to job performance. Subjective means of making work meaningful and satisfying are employed to motivate people to improve their performance. The need for recognition, independence, respect, entertainment and social relations at work means more than the tasks themselves. People attach aesthetic value to their work environment, which must be rewarding and leading to job satisfaction.
According to Mullins & Christy (2013), an attempt to categorise the theories breaks the theories into two categories; process and content theories. Process theories draw attention to the actions required to influence behaviour. Process theories focus on, “…dynamic variables that make up motivation and how behaviour can be initiated, directed, or sustained.” Emphasis is on the actual process of motivating people to work. Examples of process theories include Expectancy, Equity, Attribution and Goal theories. The focus of content theories is on the nature of human needs and what motivates people to satisfy those needs. Examples of content theories include Abraham Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs Theory, Alderfer’s Modified Need Hierarchy, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s Achievement Theory. However, it is underscored that theories are not prescriptive ways of providing motivation to employees, but they are meant to provide insight into people’s behaviour patterns that determine their performance at work.
Other motivation theories
Intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from within in terms of personal goals, aspirations and desires; problem/ goal orientation to work performance/ learning. “Intrinsic motivation is related to ‘psychological’ rewards such as the ability, a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.” These can be determined by the actions and behaviour of individual managers in the workplace. Intrinsic orientation also deals with an individual own perception about work and personal orientation to work Mullins & Christy, 2013).
Need for motivation theories
Theories help to understand the underlying principles or concepts of phenomena. they reflect various notions, ideas, arguments and conclusions reached after careful studies on a subject. Motivation theories help to understand what motivates people and how motivation can be applied in the workplace or in adult education.
People are motivated by different things and motivation studies provide several theories by which motivation and its contribution to organisational success are to be understood. There are various ‘competing’ theories of motivation, but their frame of reference is linked to management schools of thought for logic. The classic, human relations, systems, and contingency approaches all view management from different viewpoints and thus influence the thinking behind motivation in the workplace. There are other schools of thought, who view management purely as a direct relationship with production and others, who view motivation in terms of the aspect of social relations. These underlying perceptions influence how managers motivate their subordinates for improved job performance.
Those managers who look at motivation as a technical aspect to increase production care less about the social relations or psychological effects of the work environment, job structure or work organisation, but they focus on objective approaches to influencing people to work. Rules, structured work procedures, and external rewards leave little room for passionate attachments between managers and subordinates. Employees are motivated by external rewards, incentives or punishments to reinforce or encourage action.
Managers who focus on the aspect of the social relations at work realise the influence of the humane element to job performance. Subjective means of making work meaningful and satisfying are employed to motivate people to improve their performance. The need for recognition, independence, respect, entertainment and social relations at work means more than the tasks themselves. People attach aesthetic value to their work environment, which must be rewarding and leading to job satisfaction.
According to Mullins & Christy (2013), an attempt to categorise the theories breaks the theories into two categories; process and content theories. Process theories draw attention to the actions required to influence behaviour. Process theories focus on, “…dynamic variables that make up motivation and how behaviour can be initiated, directed, or sustained.” Emphasis is on the actual process of motivating people to work. Examples of process theories include Expectancy, Equity, Attribution and Goal theories. The focus of content theories is on the nature of human needs and what motivates people to satisfy those needs. Examples of content theories include Abraham Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs Theory, Alderfer’s Modified Need Hierarchy, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s Achievement Theory. However, it is underscored that theories are not prescriptive ways of providing motivation to employees, but they are meant to provide insight into people’s behaviour patterns that determine their performance at work.
Other motivation theories
Two-factor theory
“A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction.”According to Robbins & Judge (2015:218), intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility and achievement are related to job satisfaction and are called hygiene factors. Extrinsic factors such as company policies, supervision, pay and working conditions are related to dissatisfaction and are called growth factors.Mullins & Christy (2013) say that removing dissatisfaction factors does not automatically make the job satisfactory. Robbins & Judge (2015) concur and say that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but no satisfaction and the absence of dissatisfaction is simply no dissatisfaction but not satisfaction. Hygiene factors are intrinsically rewarding, while growth factors are extrinsically rewarding. Robbins & Judge (2015) note that eliminating those factors that cause dissatisfaction does not necessarily motivate people to perform at their optimum level, but it just eliminates dissatisfaction at work or during the learning process. The theory implies that people will only be truly motivated to excel when hygiene factors are adequate because people find these intrinsically rewarding.
Goal-setting theory [Herzberg]The theory is premised on the belief that‘Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance”(Robbins & Judge: 2015:225). Edwin Locke in Robbins & Judge (2015)proposed around the 1960s that having specified goals is a major source of motivation, to work towards achieving the set goals. The theory also proposes that goals should be challenging, thus belief that challenging and difficult goals increase performance as people increase their effort and become creative to achieve the set goals if the goals are initially accepted.
The theory also states that feedback is an essential element of motivation because it leads to higher performance than does no feedback. Feedback on goal achievement is critical to the actual performance because people can identify discrepancies, and gaps that need to be addressed. Feedback on performance and goals helps managers to keep a record of accomplishment of work progress. It also helps people to be accountable for the work and actions, taken or not taken.
This is the reason why objective setting and the principle of Management by Objectives or Results-Based ManagementSystem steals the limelight because short-term successes and milestone achievements create a sense of achievement and a commitment to the overall goals realising that the goals are achievable. Management by objectives “emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable”.
Achievement theory [McClelland]
“A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction.”According to Robbins & Judge (2015:218), intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility and achievement are related to job satisfaction and are called hygiene factors. Extrinsic factors such as company policies, supervision, pay and working conditions are related to dissatisfaction and are called growth factors.
Mullins & Christy (2013) say that removing dissatisfaction factors does not automatically make the job satisfactory. Robbins & Judge (2015) concur and say that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but no satisfaction and the absence of dissatisfaction is simply no dissatisfaction but not satisfaction. Hygiene factors are intrinsically rewarding, while growth factors are extrinsically rewarding. Robbins & Judge (2015) note that eliminating those factors that cause dissatisfaction does not necessarily motivate people to perform at their optimum level, but it just eliminates dissatisfaction at work or during the learning process. The theory implies that people will only be truly motivated to excel when hygiene factors are adequate because people find these intrinsically rewarding.
Goal-setting theory [Herzberg]
The theory is premised on the belief that‘Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance”(Robbins & Judge: 2015:225). Edwin Locke in Robbins & Judge (2015)proposed around the 1960s that having specified goals is a major source of motivation, to work towards achieving the set goals. The theory also proposes that goals should be challenging, thus belief that challenging and difficult goals increase performance as people increase their effort and become creative to achieve the set goals if the goals are initially accepted.
The theory also states that feedback is an essential element of motivation because it leads to higher performance than does no feedback. Feedback on goal achievement is critical to the actual performance because people can identify discrepancies, and gaps that need to be addressed. Feedback on performance and goals helps managers to keep a record of accomplishment of work progress. It also helps people to be accountable for the work and actions, taken or not taken.
This is the reason why objective setting and the principle of Management by Objectives or Results-Based ManagementSystem steals the limelight because short-term successes and milestone achievements create a sense of achievement and a commitment to the overall goals realising that the goals are achievable. Management by objectives “emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable”.
Achievement theory [McClelland]
The achievement theory states that people are motivated by the need for achievement, power and affiliation. These three are viewed as a major source of motivation. The need for achievement is the drive towards excelling or success in life. The need for power is influence related; to have influence over others and be able to control their behaviour. The need for affiliation is the desire for social relationships or friendly and quality interpersonal engagements.
The achievement theory states that people are motivated by the need for achievement, power and affiliation. These three are viewed as a major source of motivation. The need for achievement is the drive towards excelling or success in life. The need for power is influence related; to have influence over others and be able to control their behaviour. The need for affiliation is the desire for social relationships or friendly and quality interpersonal engagements.
Reinforcement theory
Behaviour that is
not rewarded (withholding rewards) is perceived as unrewarding and is unlikely
to be repeated. Reinforcement can be aided by punishment to
discourage undesired behaviour. Punishment is rewarding behaviour with
undesirable consequences or taking away something desirable or perceived as
rewarding to discourage unwanted behaviour. As advocated by BF Skinner in
Robbins & Judge (2015), reinforcement should immediately follow the
behaviour being rewarded to form a relationship or link with the stimulus.
“Behaviour is a function of its consequences.” Reinforcement theory derives from behaviourism, which is a “theory that argues that behaviour follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner” (Robbins & Judge, 2015:230). Reinforcement theory helps to understand how organisms are motivated to learn new behaviour patterns. According to behaviourists, the behaviour is shaped by the environment and can be reinforced by rewards and punishments to repetition to occur. Reinforcements are “any consequences that, when immediately following responses, increase the probability that the behaviour will be repeated.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of Needs theory around 1943. It is based on the idea that ‘Human beings are wanting beings, they always want more above what they already have or what they have already acquired.’ Mullins & Christy (2013) say that providing more of the same need is not motivational because after acquiring a certain level of satisfaction, a person seeks to satisfy other needs of a higher order. Maslow displays the needs in a pyramid to represent the spacing of needs as people progress up the hierarchy.
a. Physiological needs, the organisation can offer Pay incentives, Pleasant working conditions, Cafeteria, Transport and Uniforms among other things. Motivation in training and learning of adults is also the same. Learners learn better when they are ready. The law of readiness is a crucial element in explaining behavioural learning outcomes. The physiological elements in the learning environment can be manipulated to draw the best learning experiences in learners to achieve the goals of learning. Material requirements at work and in the learning process and those used by individual learners fall under this category of physiological needs (Knowles, 1975).
b. Safety needs the organisation can offer Safe working conditions, Job Security; Pensions and Allowances, and Company benefits; Accommodation and Medical benefits, code of conduct. The learning or work environment should be safe and unthreatening. Learning should lead to satisfying outcomes.
c. Social needs, the organisation facilitate Cohesion among different workgroups, communicating important information and keeping employees informed of the goings-on. Management should also ensure, by putting in place structures that enable professional association, constant appraisal and friendly supervision. In the learning environment cooperation among learners, sharing of experiences and the learning adventure brings people of different backgrounds together, to work on certain goals. New relationships that are essential for new learning and discovery are built (Mulllins & Christy, 2013).
d. Esteem needs to be offered at the organisational level may include Social recognition, Status; Authority or responsibility relative to position or rank or Job title and Feedback on the job. Status, ego and recognition are inseparable. People engage in learning to acquire new knowledge that can raise their status and recognition by others. Hence, education is a crucial element of motivation. Learners are motivated if learning programs are rewarding.
e. Self-actualizing needs; Management should provide challenging job opportunities for the employees; involve employees in the key decision-making process, Opportunities for creativity, Welcoming suggestions or initiatives by employees, Opportunities for advancement; Training and development as well as Promotion. In education, education itself is regarded as a liberating force. When people's minds become liberated to think for themselves then they are truly self-actualised. Liberalism philosophy centres educational arguments on developing people's intellectual powers, such as knowledge, wisdom, and critical thinking with the belief that an educated mind is a liberated mind (Darkenwald . G. and Merriam, 1982).
With particular reference to adult learning, Maslow's hierarchy of needs insinuates that self-actualisation only occurs in adulthood and therefore it is an important aspect of adult learning. The argument is that children and youths are still dependent on parents, guardians, teachers, thus they are not self-actualised, but adults are free and independent beings who can make own learning decisions. However, this does not spare other adults who are dependent on other people or systems to which they are restricted or confined and unable to think for themselves and make own decisions.
Other scholars point out that Job Satisfaction alone does not lead to better work performance. Other social variables can be attributed to work performance. People’s needs are not only satisfied at work. There are limits to what management can do to motivate employees at work. The satisfaction of other needs is attributed to social variables. Alderfer criticizes Maslow saying that there are only three levels of needs, which can be explained in a continuum than in a hierarchical form. Along the continuum, a person has the flexibility to move to any point seeking to maintain a balance in terms of satisfaction of needs (Mulllins & Christy, 2013).
Conclusion The motivation of workers or learners should be practical. Strategic approaches should be mapped out to show that managers are doing something to motivate those whom they lead. Definitions of motivation have been discussed revealing different perspectives about motivation in the workplace or learning environment. Various theories of motivation have been discussed as well to provide insight on different approaches of motivating employees or learners to adopt best practices as forms of behaviour that leads to better performance that yields optimum results for organisations. Managers are concerned about motivation to increase job performance.
By Chijoko Edmore M.
Further reading
a. Physiological needs, the organisation can offer Pay incentives, Pleasant working conditions, Cafeteria, Transport and Uniforms among other things. Motivation in training and learning of adults is also the same. Learners learn better when they are ready. The law of readiness is a crucial element in explaining behavioural learning outcomes. The physiological elements in the learning environment can be manipulated to draw the best learning experiences in learners to achieve the goals of learning. Material requirements at work and in the learning process and those used by individual learners fall under this category of physiological needs (Knowles, 1975).
b. Safety needs the organisation can offer Safe working conditions, Job Security; Pensions and Allowances, and Company benefits; Accommodation and Medical benefits, code of conduct. The learning or work environment should be safe and unthreatening. Learning should lead to satisfying outcomes.
c. Social needs, the organisation facilitate Cohesion among different workgroups, communicating important information and keeping employees informed of the goings-on. Management should also ensure, by putting in place structures that enable professional association, constant appraisal and friendly supervision. In the learning environment cooperation among learners, sharing of experiences and the learning adventure brings people of different backgrounds together, to work on certain goals. New relationships that are essential for new learning and discovery are built (Mulllins & Christy, 2013).
d. Esteem needs to be offered at the organisational level may include Social recognition, Status; Authority or responsibility relative to position or rank or Job title and Feedback on the job. Status, ego and recognition are inseparable. People engage in learning to acquire new knowledge that can raise their status and recognition by others. Hence, education is a crucial element of motivation. Learners are motivated if learning programs are rewarding.
e. Self-actualizing needs; Management should provide challenging job opportunities for the employees; involve employees in the key decision-making process, Opportunities for creativity, Welcoming suggestions or initiatives by employees, Opportunities for advancement; Training and development as well as Promotion. In education, education itself is regarded as a liberating force. When people's minds become liberated to think for themselves then they are truly self-actualised. Liberalism philosophy centres educational arguments on developing people's intellectual powers, such as knowledge, wisdom, and critical thinking with the belief that an educated mind is a liberated mind (Darkenwald . G. and Merriam, 1982).
With particular reference to adult learning, Maslow's hierarchy of needs insinuates that self-actualisation only occurs in adulthood and therefore it is an important aspect of adult learning. The argument is that children and youths are still dependent on parents, guardians, teachers, thus they are not self-actualised, but adults are free and independent beings who can make own learning decisions. However, this does not spare other adults who are dependent on other people or systems to which they are restricted or confined and unable to think for themselves and make own decisions.
Other scholars point out that Job Satisfaction alone does not lead to better work performance. Other social variables can be attributed to work performance. People’s needs are not only satisfied at work. There are limits to what management can do to motivate employees at work. The satisfaction of other needs is attributed to social variables. Alderfer criticizes Maslow saying that there are only three levels of needs, which can be explained in a continuum than in a hierarchical form. Along the continuum, a person has the flexibility to move to any point seeking to maintain a balance in terms of satisfaction of needs (Mulllins & Christy, 2013).
Conclusion
The motivation of workers or learners should be practical. Strategic approaches should be mapped out to show that managers are doing something to motivate those whom they lead. Definitions of motivation have been discussed revealing different perspectives about motivation in the workplace or learning environment. Various theories of motivation have been discussed as well to provide insight on different approaches of motivating employees or learners to adopt best practices as forms of behaviour that leads to better performance that yields optimum results for organisations. Managers are concerned about motivation to increase job performance.
By Chijoko Edmore M.
Further reading
Brisson-Banks, C. V. (2010). Managing Change & Transitions: A Comparison of Different Models And Their Commonalities. Library Management, 31(4), 241-252. DOI:10.1108/01435121011046317
Cole, G. A. (2004). Management Theory and Practice. London: BookPower.
Darkenwald. G. and Merriam, S. B. (1982). Foundations of Practice. Ty Crowell Co.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York Association Press, 2(2), 135.
Mullins, L. J., & Christy, G. (2005). The Nature of Leadership. In L. J. Mullins, & M. L. J. (Ed.), Management and Organisational Behaviour. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Mullins, L. J., & Christy, G. (2013). Management and Organisational Behaviour (10 ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2015). Organisational Behaviour (16th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Brisson-Banks, C. V. (2010). Managing Change & Transitions: A Comparison of Different Models And Their Commonalities. Library Management, 31(4), 241-252. DOI:10.1108/01435121011046317
Cole, G. A. (2004). Management Theory and Practice. London: BookPower.
Darkenwald. G. and Merriam, S. B. (1982). Foundations of Practice. Ty Crowell Co.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York Association Press, 2(2), 135.
Mullins, L. J., & Christy, G. (2005). The Nature of Leadership. In L. J. Mullins, & M. L. J. (Ed.), Management and Organisational Behaviour. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.
Mullins, L. J., & Christy, G. (2013). Management and Organisational Behaviour (10 ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2015). Organisational Behaviour (16th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
