Whether primitive or advanced, all societies have a form of adult education to prepare people to deal with challenges of their society. From time to time people have different challenges and problems that require them to make informed decisions and take action. Each challenge has a set of solutions that come through research efforts and initiative of entrepreneurial minds. Historically, all societies transitioned through different epochs with different sets of challenges. Adult education therefore can be explained as the bridge through which people are trained or educated to cope with life and to solve challenges or basically to be dedicated to finding solutions for solving societal problems in all sectors of society; family, community, business, industry, health, education, transport, art & entertainment and many more.
I usually tell my colleagues and fellow academics who usually are looking for ways of disqualifying adult education as a profession, that comparing adult-education with education is the mistake any society can make and continue to struggle with development. I always say that adult education is not education, but development; adult education is about improving professional, business and life skills. In this statement my goal is to divert the focus of any audience from the classroom; with a teacher in front and students and learners seated in rows and columns facing a black-board. To equate formal education with adult education becomes a parochial view of adult education.
In saying adult education is development it means, the learners and the teachers or adult educators, who are usually unidentified by these terms but various other industry or field specific terms, such as Manager, Projects Officer, Human Resources Development Officer, Trainer, Community Development Officer, Environmental Health Officer, Consultant, Counselor, Pastor, Evangelist, and many other terms insignificantly used; are out there in every form of family care, community and business arrangement. Adult education lives in every form of development and business as long there is a requirement for imparting or sharing knowledge, ideas, values, skills and attitudes necessary for life and other development objectives.
An attempt on conceptualizing adult education
There is seldom a straightforward answer to the question on what adult education is all about. Interestingly, even some of the ‘adult educators’ and students of adult education fail to answer the question satisfactorily. The answer to this question is simple. Adult education is development. It can therefore be contextualized in various fields. The most crucial fact to note is that, adult education exist to look into the problems bedeviling society and to find solutions to such problems by helping people cope with the demands of development and change. This happens through a process of knowledge and skills transfer or transition.
In principle, I will provide some scholarly definitions of adult education as follows; The Exeter Conference (1969) in Mushengyezi (2003) defines adult education as,
The process whereby persons who no longer attend school regularly (unless full-time programmes are specially designed for adults) undertake sequential and organized activities within a conscious intention of bringing about changes in information, knowledge, understanding, skills, appreciation and attitudes, to identify and solve personal or community problems.
While other definitions emphasize the nature of educational provisions, for example, education provided as a second chance for those who missed education opportunities during their prime years or continuing education for those who have completed formal school (Lindeman, 2010). The Exeter Conference definition as cited in Mushengyezi (2003) identifies the purpose of adult education. This is critical in understanding the essence of adult education no matter how it is provided, whether as formal or non-formal. The different definitions also portray the dynamic trends in adult education practice, because historically, adult education has evolved since pre-modern societies depending on the goals and problems of different societies in different epochs.
A recent definition of adult education by UNESCO as cited in Milana et al. (2017) specifies broad aims of adult education as,
To equip people with the necessary capabilities to exercise and realize their rights and take control of their destinies. It promotes personal and professional development, thereby supporting more active engagement by adults with their societies, communities and environments. It fosters sustainable and inclusive economic growth and decent work prospects for individuals. It is, therefore, a crucial tool in alleviating poverty, improving health and well being and contributing to sustainable learning societies.
This definition is important because it links adult education with contemporary issues such as economic growth, community development, socio-political development, training and human resources development and poverty alleviation, which are crucial for the quality of life and sustainable development.
Forms of adult education found in societies:
Formal education
According to Vermeersch & Vandenbroucke (2010:9), formal education is that education which is “provided in the system of schools, colleges, universities and other formal educational institutions that normally constitute a continuous ‘ladder’ of education." Formal education signifies an intentional process aimed at acquiring a certified qualification, which leads to the next educational level.
Non-formal education
Non Formal Education refers to any organised and sustained educational activities that take place both within and outside educational institutions for persons of all ages. There are two distinct features by which to define or identify non-formal education; the fact that non-formal education does not directly involve certification or assessment, and that its classes offer a potential bridge for the learner to proceed to the formal education system (Cameron & Harrison, 2014).
These two forms of education are crucial in the field of adult education because all programmes for adults fall into this categorization. Formal education is vital in contemporary societies because of governments’ mandate to provide education as a basic right for all. However, non-formal education bridges the gap in circumstances that make it impracticable for people to attend formal school. Knowles (2005) says that adults are self-directing and goal-oriented. They need to learn at their own pace and choose the areas of study they perceive as offering benefits and solutions to problems in their life experiences. On the one hand, adult education in primitive societies would automatically fall under non-formal education; because of the lack of emphasis on certification and assessment as well as that it is not organized around institutional frameworks. On the other hand, developed societies have both forms of education to cater for diverse needs for various target groups in society (Milana et al., 2017).
By identifying the goals of adult education, it becomes apparent that all types of societies have a form of adult education that helps them adapt to the needs of that society. Adult education is a multifaceted and complex discipline. It is multidisciplinary and it encompasses many subjects and interest areas to cater for the divergent needs of all the people in the society as well as helping people to adapt to the environment or to preserve it. The target groups for adult education are also varied as expressed in the difficulty with which to arrive at a universal definition of an adult or of adult education. Some of the areas of adult education are, “Adult Basic Education (teaching basic learning and survival skills to the undereducated); continuing education efforts for personal and professional growth and enrichment activities for the highly educated” (Vermeersch & Vandenbroucke, 2010).
Adult education plays an indirect but significant role in education and economic development of a nation. Without adult education, it becomes difficult to have a wide range of skills and knowledge to drive economic and social development. Adult education also aims at increasing the quality of life of individuals by developing their capacities; conceptual, analytic and functional competencies to improve standards for individuals, families, communities, and societies. Collectively, progressive societies contribute to the well being of a nation. Thus, adult education is crucial for developing societies (Tokatly, 2017).
Problems of the primordial times required different approaches to contemporary world problems. The industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th century brought about tremendous shifts in ways of doing business and life in general. That phase had its fair share of challenges for the adult population of the time. The colonization of Africa, the World Wars, the Cold War, and globalization are some of the historical phases that transformed people’s lives in a big way. Problems that came along with these changes included diseases and pandemics, illiteracy, poverty, injustices, and political reforms. In each epoch there were educational reforms and approaches to help people transition from one state to another and to solve these problems or adapt to challenges these changes brought.
Educationists like Albert Mansbridge in Britain around 1903, popularized University Extension programmes for workers to address certain challenges of prejudiced workers of the time. Paul Freire, beginning in Brazil popularized adult literacy programmes to help workers to be able to read and write so that they could read their world of misfortune and be able to write their own existence by challenging the status quo. Julius Nyerere, in Tanzania also made a mark on the history of Adult education in Africa by emphasizing on education for development so that the people could acquire the necessary skills to actively participate in the development of their lives, communities and the nation. That could only come of out of a critical consciousness brought about by new learning and acquisition of new knowledge, skills, attitudes and values- and the vehicle to bring about this new learning among the adult population is adult education.
Today’s problems are different from the problems of the yesteryears. The tremendous growth of the technological industry has swiftly turned the world and the way of life. Globalization has also changed life and brought greater dependence of people of the world on each other. The global challenge of climate change and the need for environmental protection, speed of travel, communication and spread of disease and pandemics calls for even greater cooperation. While there is need for greater cooperation, the state of world politics and amount of conflicts in other parts of the world pose even greater challenges and risks on the well-being, peace and security of the people of the world. Without a unified and coordinated effort, this is overwhelming on individuals, families, businesses, communities, and even states. Adult education, through research and development efforts, attends to arising issues through educational reform, research and training. Adult educators use various platforms and strategies in achieving their goals. Educational efforts born out of this include formal and non-formal programmes, institutional, informational and developmental programmes; each type of programme being relevant in its targeted objectives, audience and implementation.
Objectives of adult education range from basic literacy to scientific, legal, professional, academic, informational and technological literacies. The collection of these skills is functional towards building a cohesive society. Adult education is also essential in raising self-awareness and social consciousness of people in society- about their socio-political and economic conditions to encourage them to be proactive in the development of their society. Through adult education research, problems and needs can be identified to bring about relevant solutions or interventions to address the needs or problems in the society (Elias & Merriam, 1994).
For purposes of clarity, I will present the brief historical background of adult education in two selected countries; Zimbabwe and Britain. The development of adult education in other countries could be traced historically for learning purposes, but for the purpose of this paper, the two will suffice.
Brief historical background of adult education in Zimbabwe
The historical background of adult education in Zimbabwe can be divided into pre-colonial, colonial and post-independence periods. The pre-colonial period in Zimbabwe provides clear evidence that any society, whether primitive or advanced has a form of adult education for its survival. Chihuri (2015) provides a similar framework for presenting the forms of adult education that prevailed in these different epochs. Adult education has endured each of these epochs being the centre of knowledge and cultural transfer to pass on life skills, knowledge, attitudes and values necessary for survival and continuity of society.
Centred on the philosophy of Ubuntu/ Unhu, and constructivist ideas which emphasize on collectivity, family, cooperation, human dignity, respect for elders and spirituality or piety, knowledge and skills transfer was based on oracy or orality. Adult education was mainly through experiential learning and sometimes through inspiration. The essence of oral transmission of knowledge and skills in pre-modern societies is embodied in the common African adage which says “…when an old man dies, a library burns down” (Maina, 2012). Though there were some forms of undeveloped forms of writing, paintings and art- knowledge, education and training were preserved and transferred orally and active participation in events, festivities, daily routines in the home and community (Ong, 1982).
The education of adults was organized around daily activities, work, entertainment or leisure. People did not go to school to learn to read and write or to take up courses. Life itself provided non-formal educational activities that ensured the continuity of traditions, cultures, language, and the quest for wisdom, skills and knowledge. Examples of such activities include recruitment and training of warriors, hunting, agriculture, family and community events or ceremonies. According to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UNDRIP), "Indigenous People have a right to "revitalize, use, develop, and transmit to future generations their histories, languages, oral traditions, philosophies, writing systems and kinds of literature" (UN, 2007, Article 14). This provision by the United Nations indicates the importance of traditional adult education systems of pre-modern societies. It is evidence of knowledge and educational systems which were in existence.
Chihuri (2015) says all activities in the society, be it entertainment, leisure and work were laced with education and training components. For example, during family time, men would gather around at the ‘dare’ which simply means meeting place or court and women would also gather in the hut kitchens or around a fireplace and share stories and folktales which were designed to inspire or to educate others. Educational components were embedded in the folklores, poetry, dance and festivities. The myths, taboos, idioms and metaphors, prevalent in indigenous languages, culture and traditions were also meant to provoke thinking and analysis of facts and situations as well as to sanction wrong doing and promote ethics and social values. Thus, wisdom was epitomized in such practices and traditions. Even though the society might be considered to have been primitive, the education of the time was organized around their life patterns and it sustained them for many generations leading up to the initial interactions with the European merchants.
The interactions with European merchants around the 18th century leading to the colonial period from 1850 to 1980 marked another phase in the history of Zimbabwe. The settler regime, with their expectations and vision for the new colony, brought a different system of education based on formal schooling and literacy. This sudden development transformed the lives of the people hugely, but because of bottlenecks and racial prejudices, many native people did not directly benefit at the time. During the protracted struggle for independence, people in rural areas were forced into 'keeps' which were colonial forms of settlement. Those in the towns were also forced into manual labour in the manufacturing industries. Thus the lifestyle and educational patterns of the pre-modern societies were disrupted by this new arrangement (Clarke, 2005).
New forms of adult education became more organized in the form of non-formal education. Training programmes for workers in the white-owned industries and farms were organized for the native workers. Most of the training for those working in industries was in the form of on the job training (Duke, 1989).
During the industrialization period in Zimbabwe around 1947, the new crop of literate young adults completing the formal school soon joined the job market and at the height of social injustices and racial segregation, there were new formations for black conscientisation and revolutionary sentiments building through organized labour. As the black masses increased their fight against injustices and ill-treatment in the workplace, they began to organize themselves in labour or workers unions. This phase represents another wave of adult education by which workers received political education, which drove most into revolutionary politics leading to the armed struggle for independence (Sachikonye, 1990).
The war also produced another form of adult education in the form of ‘Pungwe’ meetings, which was meant to deliver political education to the masses to garner people’s support for the war. Another form of adult education during this period was religious education. A movement of native apostolic churches formed as the people started shifting their focus from the white missionary led churches and Euro-centric gospel.
After independence, the new government of Zimbabwe embarked on education for all policy to address education inadequacies of the colonial times. Both children and adults who had missed the opportunity of formal education were encouraged to go to school. Education was subsidized by the government to ease the burden of school fees on most poor black people. Literacy programmes were organized to teach adults how to read and write. These programmes were conducted either as non-formal night school or as community programmes. Various work-based programmes for adults were also organized and these include, agriculture extension, health extension, environmental health education, correspondence, professional skills development, vocational and technical education, and distance learning programmes to ensure that people continue to receive relevant education for the survival of their society.
Workers Education in Britain
As has been highlighted in this text, that adult education trends are tied to the needs of the people or to the developmental problems of their times. Britain, having been a developed country than Zimbabwe from times past, her form of adult education around the late 18th to the 20th century was different from those of Zimbabwe. The late 18th century marked the beginning of industrialization in Britain whilst in the societies in the land later to be called Zimbabwe, were still primitive societies relying on oral cultures concerning education (Clarke, 2005).
By that period, British populations were literate and advancing in their industrial technology. The 1900s were the peak of industrialization, thus more focus of adult education was placed on workers education. In 1903, a new wave of University Extension programmes targeting workers to increase their intellectual capabilities was instigated by a man called Albert Mansbridge. The campaign for workers education in Britain transcended into other European countries and regions between 1903 and 1910. However, there were criticisms from the radical wing who felt that institutionalized learning was only meant to pacify the worker to conform to social injustices and inequalities engineered by the capitalists (Duke, 1989).
Radical criticisms of the university extension programmes achieved some level of success in initiating more organized labour around 1909. The period between 1909 and 1911 was punctuated with labour action, as workers conscientisation against their poor working conditions and social inequalities between the proletariat and the capitalists grew more and more (Duke, 1989).
During this period of industrialization and major leaps in adult education in Britain and other developed countries, Zimbabwe was still at its early colonization period, but adult education had long been in existence ever since the pre-colonial times, hence it can be clearly seen that adult education is relevant in any society despite the level of development in that society. The evolving trends in adult education are testimony to the fact that different societies have different educational needs and problems that adult education should address through research, projects, developmental, institutional or informational programmes (Boyle, 1981).
Conclusions
As the world today is becoming a global village, there is a shift towards democratic politics, world cooperation, industry and trade, environmental protection, technological advancement in health, education, energy and security. People’s demands and consumption levels are changing with the changing demographics. New ways of conducting business brought about by technology and the world pandemic COVID-19 require new ways of thinking, teaching and learning. The field of adult education is not spared by these tremendous changes. Information creation and distribution has improved because of technology, and people are learning on the go. People as both creators and consumers of knowledge are actively engaged in new forms of adult education. The nature of adult education today is different from adult education of the yesteryear. Adult education today seeks to answer to the problems of today. Hence, there may be no one answer to describe what adult education is or why it is necessary in society tracing on its historical development.
Societies thrive when they have viable adult education. Primitive societies flourished through non-formal adult education to transmit their culture, values, knowledge and skills. Modern societies use both, non-formal and formal education systems to educate and train their adults, who must be active in the development of their national interests in all ways; politically, culturally, socially and economically.
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