Chijoko Edmore M.
5 Sept 2019
HOW CULTURE AND RELIGION AFFECT COMMUNICATION
Communication
is sometimes value bound or it is contextually bound. This means that
expressions find their true meaning from other factors besides what is being
expressed or said in words or non-verbal language. Understanding the communication context in which communication occurs helps to understand the underlying factors or nuances around a message or information. In education and training, this knowledge is very useful because it brings to the fore the constructs on which planning, learning and evaluating programmes should be based. In this text, the definition of the word context is briefly discussed leading into the discussion on various factors of the communication context, which includes Culture, Psychological context, Physical context, Historical context and the Socio-political context. The definition of communication is included in earlier posts on communication.
The following is a Dictionary
meaning of Context
The circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood. This definition helps us to understand the word context as the environment in which an activity or event occurs. Communication context is the setting in which communication is occurring. Context is the background by which perceptions, behaviour, expressions, and understandings can be judged. Perceptual cognition is also based on several things. This psychological process or the ability of an individual to interpret things and communicate meaningfully is based on several factors as mentioned before. However, it should be noted that these factors are entwined and inclusive.
CULTURAL CONTEXT
What is culture? Culture is defined as a ‘Constellation of both written and unwritten expectations, values, norms, rules, laws, artifacts, rituals, and behaviours that permeate society and influence how people behave socially’.
Knoblauch (1995) defines culture as ‘the civilisation patterns of different groups of people as guided by particular valuations, systems of orientation, and institutions which include; mores, norms, folkways, habits, customs, etiquette, and fashions, which are characteristics of any social group at some point in time’. Culture denotes the way of life of a particular group of people. It also enshrines people’s beliefs, language, moral judgement and controls, art, and foods among many other things. The paradox is that the human races consider their own cultures an iron rod by which to judge other cultures. Culture has many variations which include other sub-cultures formed based on people’s routines, business or systems. Some cultures are open cultures or they become formalised while others remain a secret or closed. Culture changes or becomes adaptive. Other elements of culture are quickly adaptive while others are rigid and remain stagnant.
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| (Cultural Show) Harare Carnival 2017 |
Organisational culture
In human resources development and training, it suffices to include organisational culture. This refers to how organisational activities are conducted.
It enshrines discipline and grievance procedures, communication systems, organisational structure, orders, codes of conduct and dress. Organisational culture is embedded in the organisational philosophical orientation or leadership styles adopted by the directors or founders of the organisation. This is the general perspective or ‘world view’, a system of ideas governing the organisational procedures or ways of doing things.
Elements of culture
· Language
· Religion
· Living traditions
· Symbols; materials, objects, artifacts, dress-code, colour
Why is it necessary to understand
cultural aspects?
· Cultural relativity
· Culture construction
· Perceptions
Understanding elements of culture help trainers/ educators to identify the determinants of knowledge systems of a group of people, how they receive and analyse messages as well as how their interactions are guided or governed.
RELIGION
Religion is a strong influence on people’s behaviour, motivations, and perceptions. Communication in a multicultural society or across cultural frontiers should be done with this in mind. Religion is also a critical element of culture. Religion generally moulds belief systems of people and this includes their general ideas about life or certain issues, way of worship, spirituality and superstitions. There are different religions of the world and the paradox is that each religion fights for dominance and this may create danger for educators and trainers working in new religious frontiers.
Care should be exercised in terms of language, practices and behaviour. Some problems and conflicts in the world originate from varying religious views, for example, the extended civil wars in the African nation of Congo; extremist Islamic versus Christian groups, and the historical clashes of Israel and Palestine. Differences of significant nature may exist even in small groups of people because of religion. These may vary in degree from as minor issues like lack of interest in participating in educational programmes, and segregation when selecting participants.
Religion has connotations in the way people communicate and it influences the kind of communications and messages between people groups. Religious views may also create communication barriers. The way people interact and relate to one another in groups may also be influenced by religious perceptions to some extent. Educators must keep this in mind when planning or embarking on training programmes.
PERCEPTIONS
Perception refers to the way people understand or perceive; through analysing, weighing and judging information or phenomena. People’s perceptions are formed by several elements of their social context for example economy, politics, culture and education. Ethnicity, tribal, and racial differences are some of the realities of the communication context. Educators or trainers should find ways of navigating through these social barriers that create communication problems. The greatest tool to achieve this is learning the imperatives of different cultures.
LANGUAGE
An Oxford dictionary meaning of language is as follows;
- The method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way or
- the system of communication used by a particular community or country.
Language is a normative system of signs and symbols used to communicate. It also includes the phraseology and vocabulary used by a particular group of people.
Language is a very important aspect of life, without which communication will be very difficult. Language is embedded in the culture of particular groups of people. Particular meanings in a language can only be derived through cultural interpretations or views. Cultural values, symbols and practices are expressed through language. Language transcends beyond words or phraseology used when communicating a message. Some things may not find expression in words and neither do people communicating need clarification or explanation of these because they are commonly understood from a common historical, socio-economic and political context. This, therefore, means that there can be hidden meanings in the words used to communicate a message or piece of information. Foreigners to this context or environment may find difficulty comprehending some implicit elements of the communication embedded in a particular cultural socio-cultural context.
Words are not the same everywhere. Language; Involves the use of words and meanings which may not necessarily be the same everywhere. The Biblical Nimrod’s plan to build a great tower that would accommodate all people in one place failed when God confused the people’s language. All of a sudden, they were speaking different languages and the plan could not be implemented because communication failed and they realised they had to part ways and form new settlements based on language. Mullins and Christy (2013:211) say that language plays an important role in building people’s perceptions and understanding of phenomena as well as how people communicate amongst themselves and with others.
Language is not only a means of transmitting subjective meanings, but it is also one of the elements used in creating or constructing those meanings. The meanings or constructs are then stored, preserved and transmitted across time and generations through language. Educators and trainers should, therefore, fit in this ‘space’ to acquaint themselves with the shrouded social realities and implicit meanings of words and behaviours used when communicating. Knoblauch (1995) says, ‘It is the use of language in social contexts which makes it work.’
Concerning organisational culture, some organisations, for example, military, police and security organisations may use coded language or jargon peculiar to that industry or in line with specific operations. Such a language may not convey the same meaning elsewhere. Thus, a language may convey a different message to different people in different occupations, industries or professions. The word ‘memory’ may convey a different first impression to a doctor, a school teacher or a computer engineer. The same as the word ‘terminal’ to a pilot, a bus driver, or an electrical engineer. This is the same with sounds and silences between words in cross-cultural communication. There are differences in what people communicate in words and in silences and sounds between the words, as well as gestures and expressions accompanying them. Hence, trainers and educators should be able to understand these dynamics of language, or at least have an appreciation of the rudiments of a language and its structures for a particular group of people/ learners. This is important because language reflects people’s experiences and the impact of their social learning based on a particular context.
Therefore, in training and adult education, language helps generally, to facilitate effective communication between educators or trainers and the learners, because culture holds particular myths, taboos and misdemeanours, all expressed in how people behave or communicate for example, in some conservative cultures, use of endearment words such as ‘sweetie, dear, or darling’ may be offensive and suggesting sexual advancement. The same with the issue of names. Some conservative cultures consider it inappropriate to ask, call-out, or say out a woman’s first or Christian name instead of her family name. The same with calling-out elderly people using their first names; a thing which may not be a concern in other cultures. Therefore, educators or trainers need to be aware of these realities, taboos and myths to avoid misguided communication when sharing knowledge with learners or when making a presentation. Mullins and Christy (2013) point out that speaking fluently and responding in a language e.g. English, does not necessarily guarantee to understand what is being said. There could be implicit meaning in what is expressly said, and ignorance to socio-cultural contexts may create a communication barrier.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Earlier on I gave an example of the historical clashes between Israel and Palestine. That forms a historical context in which communication in that region occurs. The protracted war for the Liberation from white settler regimes in Africa left imprints in the minds of the comrades. Poverty in Africa has a living imprint in the minds of Africans. Some think that it is a historical fact that Africa is ‘poor’. Certain words and expressions find meaning within a historical context.
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Mbuya Nehanda & Sekuru Kaguvi and other black colonial prisoners before
their execution at the hands of the British settlers in the then Rhodesia |
Words such as war, poverty, 1st world, 3rd world etc. ‘The historical context involves the expectation of the speaker and the audience in situations that happen regularly or have happened in the past.’ For example, if previous programmes were successful, it is easy to assume that future programmes will be successful. If previous trainers messed up things, the audience may become worried about others coming in the name of ‘training-programmes’. This is the reason why many training programmes initiated by foreign non-governmental organisations on human and social development in African countries now fail to obtain government approval. Historical facts prove that their training could have had different agendas instead. What I am saying here is that previous experiences build up people’s expectations or destroys their trust. Trainers and educators should be aware of their own expectations and those of the target group from a historical perspective. It is thus imperative for trainers and educators to learn the historical facts about their target group during the preparation and planning stage.
When looking at the psychological context, the emphasis is on what actually is happening in the minds of the people communicating. An initially well-intended message may be disturbed by the psychological status of the speaker when encoding the message or by that of the receiver when interpreting the message. The receiver may fail to receive the message well because of a mental challenge or lack of cognitive capacity.
Educational psychology presents several theories on how people learn, think or process
information. Behavioural psychology focuses on behavioural conditioning. Cognitive theories focus on mental processes. Examples include the Laws of Pragnanz which analyse perceptions of the mind/ brains during the learning process.
Psychological factors or determinants influence how a message is transmitted or received. Communication barriers may be created by psychological factors as well. Why this discussion is important is that trainers should know communication is enhanced or affected by the psychological context. At least a good communicator should be a good observer and a good listener. By observing or from listening, the trainer or educator should be able to identify their own psychological limitations or expectations as well as those of the listeners or individuals in the target group.
Basically, psychological context deals with the mental status and emotional factors that people should take note of when communicating. Cognition or the way people process information, knowledge levels, expectations, organisational culture, social-economic factors- relationship, perceptions and dressing among many other things can influence the way people think and react when communicating. Communication between people of the opposite sex can trigger a mental awareness that can enhance or affect the message. Psychological context also encompasses the mood and emotions of the audience, as well as the speaker. These also may depend on several things such as lighting, temperature and noise levels in the room, the colour of the walls and dress code. Thus, the mental state may be triggered by something in the physical, cultural, social or historical background. So, these factors are intertwined or nested together at some point.
SOCIAL CONTEXT
In an organisational setting, based on the organisational culture embedded in the policies, strategies, mission, vision and philosophical orientations of the people in the organisation, especially leaders. The unstated norms implicit in these rules also influence the way people interact and communicate in an organisation. Organisational structure, positions, and rank explicitly or impliedly set the conduct of communications in an organisation. Relationship between people also influences how they communicate. This relationship may be a boss-subordinate, student-teacher or trainee-trainer relationship. It is therefore important for trainers or educators to facilitate the formation of viable social circles to encourage worthwhile communication when running training programmes. Facilitating social activities such as sports and games, luncheons or social discussions during break times may help people shake off some tension and lose some nerves. This may go a long way to improve communication and building rapport amongst trainees and between trainees and their trainers, but at least, understanding these social dynamics is good for trainers and educators who usually set the pace during programmes.
PHYSICAL CONTEXT
Under the physical context, we can discuss several things that can be seen or touched. The place in which communication takes place is one element of the physical context that has an influence on how a message is communicated or received. Other material objects in that place also constitute the physical context. The appearance of a training venue, cleanliness, temperature levels and the lighting conditions should be satisfactory for communication to be effective. Things like equipment and arrangements/ layout say a lot about the place and how serious communication in that place should transpire. The dressing of key speakers can put others off or inspire them to listen to the message. Training is not usually a spontaneous occurrence. This means that careful thought should be made during the planning and preparation to make sure the place, the equipment and other things are in good shape or good working order for the communication to sail through. The good thing is that most of the elements about the physical context can be manipulated or rearranged for the best communication effect.
Failure to put things in the right place at the right time can create communication barriers. For example, when the audience or target group is very large, consideration should be given to using public address systems or to have sufficient accommodation/ venues to divide the audience into groups. Trying to ‘rip one’s voice out’ to be heard by those seated far away back in the hall does not only disadvantage the listeners but also creates problems for the speaker. Characteristic of many immature pastors, usually in small Pentecostal churches, is the full blast volume on the public-address system speakers in a small auditorium, which is too irritating and obviously not the best way of using sound equipment to communicate. All this has an influence on how the message is sent and how it is also received. Trainers and educators should know the best practices to make the physical environment count for the best.
NOTE FOR PROGRAMME PLANNERS, EDUCATORS & EVALUATORS
Planning, implementation and evaluation of training programmes may be hampered by socio-political, psychological, historical and cultural elements. Understanding the needs of the learners or target group requires a deep understanding of the people’s perceptions and language. Perceptions are formed by several factors which include, the socio-political status of their society and religion. Culture and language carry contextually-specific meanings to certain phenomena that do not easily find expression in other languages. The goals of learning and the level of resourcing for training also depend on the understanding of the communication context. Training strategies or approaches also function well within a cultural context. Therefore, communication should be enhanced to have an impact or to attain the training objectives.
By Chijoko Edmore M.
FURTHER READING
Knoblauch, H. (1995), Communication Contexts and Culture. Philadelphia. John Benjamins.
Mullins, L. J. & Christy, G. (2013), Management and Organisational Behaviour. 10th Ed. Pearson Education.
Podolefsky, A., Brown, P., & Lacy, S. (2009). Applying Cultural Anthropology. Podolefsky, Aaron, Peter Brown, & Scott Lacy. Applying Cultural Anthropology, 8th ed. 2009 New York: McGraw-Hill.
Schramm, W. (1997), The Beginnings of Communication Study in America. Thousand Oaks. Sage.
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